Epidemiological characteristics of myopia and pre-myopia among preschool children aged 5-6 years in ten provinces of China

  • Mengli TANG 1, 2 ,
  • Yang LIU 1, 2 ,
  • Ran QIN 3 ,
  • Xin GUO , 3, 4, * ,
  • Hongtian LI , 1, 2, 5, *
Expand
  • 1. Institute of Reproductive and Child Health/National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Peking University School of Public Health, Beijing 100191, China
  • 2. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Peking University School of Public Health, Beijing 100191, China
  • 3. Department of School Health, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
  • 4. National Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102200, China
  • 5. Center for Intelligent Public Health, Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
GUO Xin, e-mail,
LI Hongtian, e-mail,

Received date: 2025-02-08

  Online published: 2025-06-13

Supported by

the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFC2702102)

the Beijing Municipal Health Commission High-level Public Health Technical Talent Development Project(领军人才-01-09)

Copyright

All rights reserved. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited.

Abstract

Objective: To describe the prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia among preschool children aged 5-6 years in ten provinces or municipalities (hereinafter referred to as province) of China, and to provide a reference for the prevention and control of myopia, and the allocation of related health resources. Methods: Convenience sampling was used to select preschool children aged 5-6 years from 21 cities in 10 provinces (including 8 provinces and 2 municipalities) in China. Cycloplegic autorefraction was conducted. The distribution of myopia and pre-myopia was described using frequencies and percentages. The Chi-square test was used to compare the differences in the prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia between regions with different varying economic development levels and between boys and girls, with a significance level of α=0.05. Results: A total of 12 926 preschool children aged 5-6 years were surveyed. The myopia prevalence was 5.5%, and the overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia was 43.4%. Boys had higher rates of myopia and overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia than girls (5.7% vs. 5.2%, 46.4% vs. 40.1%), though the difference in myopia prevalence was not statistically significant. Stratified analysis by the province, there was no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of myopia between boys and girls in any province (P>0.05), but in 8 provinces, the prevalence of myopia in boys was slightly higher than in girls. The overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia in boys was higher than in girls across all the 10 provinces, with 5 provinces showing statistically significant differences (P < 0.05). The investigated areas were divided into two categories, relatively more-developed areas and relatively less-developed areas, based on per capita gross domestic product (GDP). In 6 provinces, there was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of myopia between the two categories of areas. In 2 provinces, the prevalence was higher in relatively more-developed areas, and in 2 provinces, it was higher in relatively less-developed areas. In 4 provinces, there was no statistically significant difference in the overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia between the two categories of areas with relatively more-developed and relatively less-developed areas. In 3 provinces, the prevalence was higher in relatively more-developed areas, and in 3 provinces, it was higher in relatively less-developed areas. Conclusion: The prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia among preschool children aged 5-6 years is relatively high. Boys show higher overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia than girls, but there is no significant difference in the prevalence of myopia. There is no consistent association between the level of economic development and the incidence of myopia and pre-myopia in each province.

Cite this article

Mengli TANG , Yang LIU , Ran QIN , Xin GUO , Hongtian LI . Epidemiological characteristics of myopia and pre-myopia among preschool children aged 5-6 years in ten provinces of China[J]. Journal of Peking University(Health Sciences), 2025 , 57(3) : 442 -447 . DOI: 10.19723/j.issn.1671-167X.2025.03.006

全球近视率在过去几十年间持续上升,预计到2050年全球近半数人口会罹患近视[1]。我国的近视率高且低龄化问题尤为突出,2020年的全国近视筛查发现,儿童青少年总的近视率为52.7%,6岁儿童的近视率为14.3%[2],局部地区学龄前儿童睫状肌麻痹下的近视率为1.3%~6.3%[3-6]。学龄前儿童处于视觉发育和眼球发育的关键期,易受危险因素影响,且近视发生得越早,停留在近视进展期的时间越长,发展为高度近视的风险越高[7-8],高度近视患者眼底组织通常会发生病理性改变,不可逆性的视力损害甚至失明风险较高[9-10],因此,将近视防控提前到学龄前儿童是非常必要的。
科学准确的流行病学数据是开展近视防控的前提和基础,既往大样本流行病学研究多为非睫状肌麻痹屈光检查(简称验光)的筛查性调查,因学龄前儿童眼调节能力较强,此类调查通常会高估近视率。此外,为精确识别近视的高危人群,国际近视研究所提出了近视前期的概念[11],有研究报道,约1/3至1/2的近视前期儿童在1年内会进展为近视[12-13]。为此,了解近视前期的流行特征对于前移近视防控关口有重要现实意义,但我国目前尚缺乏有关学龄前儿童近视前期的大样本流行病学数据。本研究拟利用我国10省或直辖市幼儿园5~6岁儿童的睫状肌麻痹验光调查资料,全面描述近视及近视前期的流行特征,以期为我国近视防控和相关卫生资源配置提供参考依据。

1 资料与方法

1.1 调查对象及抽样方法

本研究为横断面调查研究,综合考虑地理位置、经济发展水平、工作开展条件等因素采用方便抽样方法,于2020—2024年在我国东部、中部、西部和东北部地区抽取北京、山东、浙江、广东、河南、湖南、山西、重庆、陕西、辽宁10省或直辖市(以下简称为“省”)共21个地级市,每个地级市抽取若干所幼儿园,每所幼儿园以班级为单位抽取5~6岁儿童纳入研究。
原始设计阶段采用简单随机抽样样本量估计公式 $ n=\frac{\mu^2 \times P \times(1-P)}{\delta^2}$计算最小样本量,μ为显著性检验的统计量,P为预期的现患率。根据2020年全国近视筛查数据显示的6岁儿童近视率为14.3%,双侧检验水准α=0.05,容许误差δ=0.572%,无应答率为20%,综合估算最小样本量为17 267,平均每个省约需调查1 800名儿童,本研究实际调查12 926名儿童,容许误差扩大为0.604%。

1.2 调查方法

在获得儿童监护人的知情同意后,对抽中班级的儿童进行睫状肌麻痹电脑验光检查,检查由具有资质的眼科专业技术人员按照国家规范及标准流程开展,所有调查对象先行裸眼远视力检查,之后进行非睫状肌麻痹电脑验光检查,对于同意行睫状肌麻痹电脑验光检查的对象,进一步使用0.5%(体积分数)复方托吡卡胺滴眼液进行睫状肌麻痹,每5分钟用1次,共用4次,最后1次滴眼30 min后行全自动电脑验光检查。本研究已通过北京市疾病预防控制中心伦理委员会审查(编号:2022年第24号)。

1.3 相关定义

近视判定标准:根据2021年国家卫生健康委员会印发的《儿童青少年近视防控适宜技术指南(更新版)》,将睫状肌麻痹下验光仪测定的任意一只眼等效球镜度数(spherical equivalent, SE)≤ -0.50 D定义为近视,其中,-6.00 D < SE≤ -0.50 D为低度近视,SE≤ -6.00 D为高度近视;对于非近视儿童,任意一只眼-0.50 D < SE≤ +0.75 D定义为近视前期。SE=球镜度数+1/2柱镜度数。
地区划分标准:根据人均生产总值(gross domestic product, GDP),将各省调查地区分为经济发展水平相对较高与经济发展水平相对较低两类地区。

1.4 质量控制

调查所用电脑验光仪均为当地在用仪器,主要包括NIDEK RT-600\ARK-1\AR-310、TOPCON RM/KR-800/KR-8900/RM-1和天乐KR-9800三类验光仪。为最大限度保障检测的准确性,每天在正式检测前用标准眼对所用仪器进行矫正,并按照当天受检人数的5%进行复测及核查。由经过培训的质控员负责检查记录表是否存在缺、误、疑数据,并及时进行重测补录,及时核实受检者的编码、出生日期、填表日期、性别、学校、班级、身高、体重等自填项目是否符合逻辑、是否存在缺项等。

1.5 统计学分析

使用SAS 9.4软件进行统计学分析,采用频数和百分比描述近视、近视前期分布特征,采用卡方检验比较不同经济发展水平地区、男女生近视和近视前期的分布差异,假设检验水准均为双侧α=0.05。

2 结果

2.1 调查对象的总体情况

本研究共调查17 760名幼儿园5~6岁儿童,将其中12 926名同意行睫状肌麻痹验光检查且双眼屈光度均未缺失者纳入分析,包括男生6 869名(53.14%),女生6 057名(46.86%);经济发展水平相对较高地区5 520名(42.70%),经济发展水平相对较低地区7 406名(57.30%)。
在12 926名儿童中,共708人罹患近视(低度近视697人,高度近视11人),近视率为5.5% (95%CI: 5.1%~5.9%),各省近视率范围为1.9%~20.7%(表 1)。近视及近视前期总的发生率为43.4% (95%CI: 42.6%~44.3%),各省近视及近视前期总的发生率范围为16.2%~72.6%。各省近视前期人数与近视罹患人数呈显著正相关,Spearman相关系数为0.794(P=0.006)。
表1 我国10省或直辖市幼儿园5~6岁儿童近视和近视前期的发生率

Table 1 prevalence of pre-myopia and myopia among children aged 5-6 in ten provinces or municipalities of China

Province Sample Pre-myopia Myopia
n % n %
Beijing 971 339 34.9 30 3.1
Shanxi 1 721 1 078 62.6 172 10.0
Liaoning 439 221 50.3 91 20.7
Zhejiang 628 90 14.3 12 1.9
Shandong 954 366 38.4 37 3.9
Henan 711 277 39.0 58 8.2
Hunan 2 952 1 058 35.8 72 2.4
Guangdong 3 224 1 013 31.4 104 3.2
Chongqing 681 232 34.1 23 3.4
Shaanxi 645 234 36.3 109 16.9
Total 12 926 4 908 38.0 708 5.5

χ2a=558.29, Pa < 0.01; χ2b=1 106.84, Pb < 0.01. a, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test for the difference in myopia prevalence across provinces. b, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test for the difference in prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia across provinces.

2.2 男女生近视及近视前期的差异

男生近视率为5.7% (95%CI: 5.2%~6.3%),女生近视率为5.2% (95%CI: 4.6%~5.8%),男女生近视率差异(0.5%, 95%CI: -0.3%~1.3%) 无统计学意义(P=0.19)。北京、辽宁、浙江、河南、湖南、广东、山东和山西8省男生近视率略高于女生,率差介于0.3%~1.9%之间,但差异均无统计学意义(P值均>0.05);重庆和陕西两省男生近视率略低于女生,率差分别为-0.7% (-3.5%~2.0%)、-1.4% (-7.3%~4.4%),差异亦无统计学意义(P值均>0.05),详见表 2
表2 我国10省或直辖市幼儿园5~6岁儿童男女生近视及近视前期的发生率

Table 2 The prevalence of pre-myopia and myopia among preschool boys and girls aged 5-6 years in ten provinces or municipalities of China

Province Boys Girls χ2a Pa χ2b Pb Difference (95%CI)a Difference (95%CI)b
Sample Pre-myopia, n (%) Myopia, n (%) Sample Pre-myopia, n (%) Myopia, n (%)
Beijing 510 204 (40.0) 18 (3.5) 461 135 (29.3) 12 (2.6) 0.69 0.40 13.93 < 0.01 0.9 (-1.2, 3.1) 11.6 (5.6, 17.7)
Shanxi 868 552 (63.6) 95 (10.9) 853 526 (61.7) 77 (9.0) 1.76 0.18 3.20 0.07 1.9 (-0.9, 4.7) 3.8 (-0.4, 8.1)
Liaoning 219 115 (52.5) 46 (21.0) 220 106 (48.2) 45 (20.5) 0.02 0.89 1.27 0.26 0.6 (-7.0, 8.1) 4.9 (-3.6, 13.4)
Zhejiang 330 49 (14.8) 8 (2.4) 298 41 (13.8) 4 (1.3) 0.98 0.32 0.54 0.46 1.1 (-1.0, 3.2) 2.2 (-3.6, 7.9)
Shandong 519 228 (43.9) 21 (4.0) 435 138 (31.7) 16 (3.7) 0.09 0.77 15.34 < 0.01 0.4 (-2.1, 2.8) 12.6 (6.4, 18.8)
Henan 376 154 (41.0) 34 (9.0) 335 123 (36.7) 24 (7.2) 0.83 0.36 2.66 0.10 1.9 (-2.1, 5.9) 6.1 (-1.2, 13.5)
Hunan 1 581 613 (38.8) 41 (2.6) 1 371 445 (32.5) 31 (2.3) 0.34 0.56 13.73 < 0.01 0.3 (-0.8, 1.4) 6.6 (3.1, 10.1)
Guangdong 1 752 597 (34.1) 62 (3.5) 1 472 416 (28.3) 42 (2.9) 1.20 0.27 14.93 < 0.01 0.7 (-0.5, 1.9) 6.5 (3.2, 9.8)
Chongqing 363 136 (37.5) 11 (3.0) 318 96 (30.2) 12 (3.8) 0.29 0.59 3.09 0.08 -0.7 (-3.5, 2.0) 6.5 (-0.7, 13.8)
Shaanxi 351 144 (41.0) 57 (16.2) 294 90 (30.6) 52 (17.7) 0.24 0.63 5.17 0.02 -1.4 (-7.3, 4.4) 9.0 (1.3, 16.7)
Total 6 869 2 792 (40.7) 393 (5.7) 6 057 2 116 (34.9) 315 (5.2) 1.69 0.19 50.88 < 0.01 0.5 (-0.3, 1.3) 6.2 (4.5, 7.9)

a, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test and the rate difference for the prevalence of myopia between boys and girls. b, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test and the rate difference for the overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia between boys and girls. The data in brackets are the prevalence of myopia or pre-myopia.

男生近视及近视前期总的发生率为46.4% (95%CI: 45.2%~47.5%),女生为40.1% (95%CI : 38.9%~41.4%),男生近视及近视前期总的发生率显著高于女生[6.2% (4.5%~7.9%), P < 0.01]。10省男生近视及近视前期总的发生率均高于女生,率差介于2.2%~12.6%之间,其中北京、山东、湖南、广东、陕西5省男女生近视及近视前期总的发生率差异均有统计学意义(P < 0.05),其余省差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。

2.3 不同经济发展水平地区间近视和近视前期的差异

表 3可见,经济发展水平相对较高地区的近视率为5.5% (95%CI: 4.9%~6.1%),经济发展水平相对较低地区的近视率为5.5% (95%CI: 5.0%~6.0%),两类地区的率差(-0.0%, 95%CI: -0.8%~0.8%)差异无统计学意义(P=0.92)。北京和陕西经济发展水平相对较高地区的近视率显著高于经济发展水平相对较低的地区(P均 < 0.01),山西和河南经济发展水平相对较高地区的近视率显著低于经济发展水平相对较低的地区(P均 < 0.01),其余6省两类地区的近视率差异无统计学意义(P均>0.05)。经济发展水平相对较高地区的近视及近视前期总的发生率[40.6% (39.3%~41.9%)]显著低于经济发展水平相对较低的地区[45.6% (44.4%~46.7%)],率差为-5.0% (-6.7%~ -3.3%, P < 0.01)。辽宁、湖南、陕西3省经济发展水平较高地区的近视及近视前期总的发生率显著高于经济发展水平相对较低的地区(P < 0.01),山西、河南、广东3省经济发展水平较高地区的近视及近视前期总的发生率显著低于经济发展水平较低的地区(P < 0.01),其余4省两类地区总的发生率差异均无统计学意义(P均>0.05)。
表3 我国10省或直辖市经济发展水平不同地区幼儿园5~6岁儿童近视及近视前期的发生率

Table 3 Prevalence of pre-myopia and myopia among preschool children aged 5-6 years in areas with different economic development levels in ten provinces or municipalities of China

Province Relatively more-developed areas Relatively less-developed areas χ2a Pa χ2b Pb Difference (95%CI)a Difference (95%CI)b
Sample Pre-myopia, n (%) Myopia, n (%) Sample Pre-myopia, n (%) Myopia, n (%)
Beijing 86 31 (36.0) 7 (8.1) 885 308 (34.8) 23 (2.6) 8.04 < 0.01 1.53 0.22 5.5 (-0.3, 11.4) 6.8 (-4.2, 17.8)
Shanxi 237 99 (41.8) 7 (3.0) 1 484 979 (66.0) 165 (11.1) 15.15 < 0.01 107.68 < 0.01 -8.2 (-10.8, -5.5) -32.4 (-39.0, -25.7)
Liaoning 203 113 (55.7) 48 (23.6) 236 108 (45.8) 43 (18.2) 1.95 0.16 12.47 < 0.01 5.4 (-2.2, 13.1) 15.3 (7.0, 23.6)
Zhejiang 214 34 (15.9) 6 (2.8) 414 56 (13.5) 6 (1.4) 1.38 0.24 1.43 0.23 1.4 (-1.1, 3.8) 3.7 (-2.5, 10.0)
Shandong 359 144 (40.1) 13 (3.6) 595 222 (37.3) 24 (4.0) 0.10 0.75 0.52 0.47 -0.4 (-2.9, 2.1) 2.4 (-4.1, 8.9)
Henan 378 112 (29.6) 15 (4.0) 333 165 (49.5) 43 (12.9) 18.91 < 0.01 59.20 < 0.01 -8.9 (-13.0, -4.8) -28.9 (-35.9, -21.8)
Hunan 1 559 617 (39.6) 42 (2.7) 1 393 441 (31.7) 30 (2.2) 0.90 0.34 22.28 < 0.01 0.5 (-0.6, 1.6) 8.5 (5.0, 11.9)
Guangdong 1 815 540 (29.8) 51 (2.8) 1 409 473 (33.6) 53 (3.8) 2.30 0.13 7.97 < 0.01 -1.0 (-2.2, 0.3) -4.8 (-8.1, -1.4)
Chongqing 345 108 (31.3) 15 (4.3) 336 124 (36.9) 8 (2.4) 2.02 0.16 0.96 0.33 2.0 (-0.7, 4.7) -3.6 (-10.9, 3.6)
Shaanxi 324 142 (43.8) 97 (29.9) 321 92 (28.7) 12 (3.7) 78.82 < 0.01 110.82 < 0.01 26.2 (20.8, 31.6) 41.4 (34.4, 48.4)
Total 5 520 1 940 (35.1) 301 (5.5) 7 406 2 968 (40.1) 407 (5.5) 0.01 0.92 31.84 < 0.01 -0.0 (-0.8, 0.8) -5.0 (-6.7, -3.3)

a, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test and the rate difference for the prevalence of myopia between different areas. b, indicates the χ2 and P values of the Chi-squared test and the rate difference for the overall prevalence of myopia and pre-myopia between different areas. The data in brackets are the prevalence of myopia or pre-myopia.

3 讨论

本次调查发现,我国幼儿园5~6岁儿童近视率约为5.5%,这一水平略低于新加坡同年龄段儿童的水平(6.4%)[14],但高于部分欧美国家同年龄段儿童的水平(2.4%~4.9%)[15-17]。调查人群近视前期的发生率处于较高水平,这与国内局部地区的调查结果相似[12, 18-19],这一水平远高于英国同年龄段儿童的水平[20]。综合看,我国儿童在幼儿园时近视问题已经较为突出。近视通常具有不可逆性,近视防控关口前移至学龄前期甚至更早期极为必要。
本研究结果显示,各省近视前期发生情况与近视患病情况呈显著正相关,即大体上表现为近视率较高地区近视前期的发生率也较高,但也有例外,如山东的近视率相对较低(3.88%),但近视前期的发生率却较高(38.36%),这提示将防控近视的时机前移至近视前期十分必要。本研究由于受新型冠状病毒流行等因素影响,调查时间跨度较大,省与省之间近视和近视前期发生率的可比性受限[21-22],但既往在不同地区开展的调查也提示,学龄前儿童近视率的地区差异较大[3, 6, 23-27]。针对差异成因开展跨区域的比较性研究,或将有助于明确幼儿园儿童高近视率的主要成因,并可以此为基础开展针对性防控。
本研究中,男生近视和近视前期的发生率总体上高于女生,这与既往研究报道的我国北京[5]、上海[3]、深圳[4]、台湾[18, 24]、香港[25]等地的调查结果一致。男女生之间近视率差异幅度虽相对较小,但近视前期及近视总的患病率相差较大,加之在多数省份均存在类似现象,提示在幼儿园5~6岁的儿童中,男生罹患近视的风险更高。男女生近视及近视前期的发生率存在差异,可能与男生眼轴长度通常长于女生这一眼部生长发育模式差异有关[28],也可能与近视风险因素暴露存在差异,以及防控近视相关行为存在差异有关。本研究还发现,不管近视率还是近视及近视前期总的发生率,均未呈现经济发展水平相对较高地区的率更高,或者经济发展水平相对较低地区的率更高的现象,这一结果与学龄儿童近视率在经济发展水平相对较高地区通常更高的特征存在明显差异[29-31],也提示学龄前儿童和学龄儿童近视的主要成因及其防控重点可能存在系统差异。
本研究的主要优势包括:(1)调查人群规模较大,调查样本涵盖我国东部、中部、西部及东北地区,具有一定的地域代表性;(2)所有纳入的研究对象均接受了睫状肌麻痹屈光检查,从源头上避免了在未行睫状肌麻痹状态下行屈光检查,因幼儿园儿童的眼调节能力较强可能引入的信息偏倚。本研究虽然总的样本规模较大,但由于采用了方便抽样,就单一省份而言,调查人群的代表性较为有限。此外,本研究虽制定了统一的调查方案和规范化调查流程,并对参与调查的人员进行了统一培训,但并未配备专门的电脑验光仪,不同品牌以及同一品牌不同型号电脑验光仪的调查结果可能存在测量误差,但由于调查期间每天在正式检测前均会用标准眼对所有仪器进行矫正,最大限度地减少了仪器间的测量误差。
综上,本研究调查地区幼儿园5~6岁儿童近视和近视前期的发生率均较高,男生近视及近视前期总的发生率略高于女生,但近视率差异无统计学意义;调查的各省份间近视和近视前期的发生率存在较大差异,但省内经济发展水平与近视和近视前期发生率之间的关系不尽相同;建议前移近视防控关口,加强学龄前儿童的近视防控。
(志谢:感谢参与本调查项目的各地疾病预防控制中心和教育系统的相关工作人员。)

利益冲突  所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。

作者贡献声明  唐孟利:数据整理,统计分析,论文撰写;刘扬:研究指导,论文审阅;秦冉:设计调查方案,论文审阅;郭欣:设计调查方案,协调调查现场,论文审阅;李宏田:全面指导研究,论文审定。

1
Holden BA , Fricke TR , Wilson DA , et al. Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050[J]. Ophthalmology, 2016, 123 (5): 1036- 1042.

DOI

2
中国政府网. 国家卫生健康委员会2021年7月13日新闻发布会文字实录[EB/OL]. (2021-07-12)[2025-01-27]. http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/s3574/202107/2fef24a3b77246fc9fb36dc8943af700.shtml.

3
Ma Y , Qu X , Zhu X , et al. Age-specific prevalence of visual impairment and refractive error in children aged 3-10 years in Shanghai, China[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2016, 57 (14): 6188- 6196.

DOI

4
Guo X , Fu M , Ding X , et al. Significant axial elongation with minimal change in refraction in 3- to 6-year-old Chinese preschoo-lers: The Shenzhen kindergarten eye study[J]. Ophthalmology, 2017, 124 (12): 1826- 1838.

DOI

5
马张芳, 侯锦, 米雪景, 等. 北京市海淀区学龄前儿童近视患病率及影响因素[J]. 眼科, 2024, 33 (5): 362- 366.

6
Lan W , Zhao F , Lin L , et al. Refractive errors in 3-6 year-old Chinese children: A very low prevalence of myopia?[J]. PLoS One, 2013, 8 (10): e78003.

DOI

7
Hu Y , Ding X , Guo X , et al. Association of age at myopia onset with risk of high myopia in adulthood in a 12-year follow-up of a Chinese cohort[J]. JAMA Ophthalmol, 2020, 138 (11): 1129- 1134.

DOI

8
Chua SY , Sabanayagam C , Cheung YB , et al. Age of onset of myopia predicts risk of high myopia in later childhood in myopic Singapore children[J]. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, 2016, 36 (4): 388- 394.

DOI

9
Haarman AEG , Enthoven CA , Tideman JWL , et al. The complications of myopia: A review and meta-analysis[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2020, 61 (4): 49.

DOI

10
Naidoo KS , Fricke TR , Frick KD , et al. Potential lost productivity resulting from the global burden of myopia: systematic review, meta-analysis, and modeling[J]. Ophthalmology, 2019, 126 (3): 338- 346.

DOI

11
Flitcroft DI , He M , Jonas JB , et al. IMI-Defining and classifying myopia: A proposed set of standards for clinical and epidemiologic studies[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2019, 60 (3): M20- M30.

DOI

12
戚紫怡, 何鲜桂, 潘臣炜, 等. 上海地区6~8岁儿童近视前期流行病学调查[J]. 中国学校卫生, 2022, 43 (9): 1314- 1318.

13
Fang PC , Chung MY , Yu HJ , et al. Prevention of myopia onset with 0.025% atropine in premyopic children[J]. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther, 2010, 26 (4): 341- 345.

DOI

14
Dirani M , Chan YH , Gazzard G , et al. Prevalence of refractive error in Singaporean Chinese children: The strabismus, ambly-opia, and refractive error in young Singaporean Children (STARS) study[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2010, 51 (3): 1348- 1355.

DOI

15
Giordano L , Friedman DS , Repka MX , et al. Prevalence of refractive error among preschool children in an urban population: The Baltimore pediatric eye disease study[J]. Ophthalmology, 2009, 116 (4): 739-746. e7464.

DOI

16
Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group . Prevalence of myopia and hyperopia in 6- to 72-month-old African American and Hispanic children: The multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study[J]. Ophthalmology, 2010, 117 (1): 140-147. e3.

DOI

17
Tideman JWL , Polling JR , Hofman A , et al. Environmental factors explain socioeconomic prevalence differences in myopia in 6-year-old children[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 2018, 102 (2): 243- 247.

DOI

18
Wang CY , Hsu NW , Yang YC , et al. Premyopia at preschool age: Population-based evidence of prevalence and risk factors from a serial survey in Taiwan[J]. Ophthalmology, 2022, 129 (8): 880- 889.

DOI

19
邓益斌, 王晓银, 王惠敏, 等. 学龄前儿童近视临床前期相关因素分析[J]. 中国学校卫生, 2023, 44 (6): 893- 896.

20
Leighton RE , Breslin KM , Richardson P , et al. Relative peri-pheral hyperopia leads to greater short-term axial length growth in White children with myopia[J]. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, 2023, 43 (5): 985- 996.

DOI

21
Wang J , Han Y , Musch DC , et al. Evaluation and follow-up of myopia prevalence among school-aged children subsequent to the COVID-19 home confinement in Feicheng, China[J]. JAMA Ophthalmol, 2023, 141 (4): 333- 340.

DOI

22
He T , Yin L , Zheng Q , et al. Survey on pattern of myopia in school children in Hangzhou after the COVID-19 pandemic: A school-based vision screening study[J]. BMC Public Health, 2024, 24 (1): 1850.

DOI

23
Fan DS , Lai C , Lau HH , et al. Change in vision disorders among Hong Kong preschoolers in 10 years[J]. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2011, 39 (5): 398- 403.

DOI

24
Yang YC , Hsu NW , Wang CY , et al. Prevalence trend of myopia after promoting eye care in preschoolers: A serial survey in Taiwan before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic[J]. Ophthalmology, 2022, 129 (2): 181- 190.

DOI

25
Yam JC , Tang SM , Kam KW , et al. High prevalence of myopia in children and their parents in Hong Kong Chinese Population: the Hong Kong Children Eye Study[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2020, 98 (5): E639- E648.

26
Zhu B , Sun Y , Wang S , et al. Refraction and ocular biometric parameters of preschool children in the Beijing whole childhood eye study: The first-year report[J]. BMC Ophthalmol, 2023, 23 (1): 366.

DOI

27
刘满军. 对学龄前儿童屈光及视力发育情况的调查分析[J]. 当代医药论丛, 2019, 17 (16): 81- 82.

DOI

28
Rauscher FG , Francke M , Hiemisch A , et al. Ocular biometry in children and adolescents from 4 to 17 years: A cross-sectional study in central Germany[J]. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, 2021, 41 (3): 496- 511.

DOI

29
关洁莹, 姜爱新, 朱颖婷, 等. 广东省珠海市与新疆省喀什市小学生视力和屈光状态的比较[J]. 中华眼视光学与视觉科学杂志, 2022, 24 (9): 667- 674.

DOI

30
Jan C , Xu R , Luo D , et al. Association of visual impairment with economic development among Chinese schoolchildren[J]. JAMA Pediatr, 2019, 173 (7): e190914.

DOI

31
Ma Y , Lin S , Li L , et al. Socioeconomic mechanisms of myopia boom in China: A nationwide cross-sectional study[J]. BMJ Open, 2021, 11 (6): e044608.

DOI

Outlines

/